The issues of cross-cultural, racial, ethnic, and subcultural biases are of concern to some who view many aspects of adaptive functioning as culturally determined (Boyle et al., 1996; Valdivia, 1999for a general discussion see the section Sociocultural Biases). Unlike the area of social perception, there is no single instrument for assessing strategy generation in individuals with mental retardation. AAMR departs significantly from other organizations by eliminating the grouping of individuals with mental retardation into levels of severity. Also, English language norms may be lower than the typical performance of a same-age child in another culture. For the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow et al., 1984a) the standardization sample was representative of the U.S. population. In an unstructured interview, the clinician applies personal, experience-based clinical norms to the adaptive behavior assessment. The expanded version is designed to meet the requirements of diagnosis and of planning/intervention, and is intentionally longer and more detailed in order to ascertain information on specific skill deficiencies. Deficits in adaptive behavior are defined as non-existent in an individual's effectiveness in meeting the standards of maturation, learning, personal independence, social responsibility and school performance. It includes activities such as walking, talking, eating, socializing and grocery shopping. Nonetheless, available research on the clinical use of adaptive behavior scales for diagnosis and treatment-related purposes by either school psychologists or community clinical psychologists appears to be relatively sparse and does not focus on groups of people with mental retardation, as such (i.e., Clinger et al., 1988; McNamara et al., 1994; Pearson & Lachar, 1994; Roberts et al., 1993; Voelker et al., 1990; Wolber et al., 1997). In our judgment, good clinical practice requires that data from standardized adaptive behavior scales be combined with other clinical or behaviorally oriented information in determining the presence or the absence of adaptive behavior deficits. This usually entails behavioral patterns that are dysfunctional to the individual. Indeed, this latter approach is consistent with guidance already noted from the Social Security Administration. In contrast, the other definitions employ more qualitative terms, which are open to interpretation in describing deficits and limitations in adaptive behavior. In some definitions (Division 33 and AAMR), adaptive behavior is construed as distinct from intellectual functioning and of equal importance, while in other definitions it is considered a result of deficits in intellectual functioning. In particular, criticism has focused on the inadequacy of existing techniques for measuring the social domain of adaptive behavior (MacMillan et al., in press). At the turn of the century, intelligence assessment placed primary emphasis on moral behavior (which largely comports with the current construct of social competence) and on the pragmatics of basic academics. Behavior identification supporting assessment The implicit rationale for not providing any statistical criteria for adaptive behavior testing is based on the existing limitations in instruments that measure adaptive behavior, specifically in terms of the comprehensiveness of measuring all domains and the reliability of measuring individual domains. Question Guide for the Assessment of Social-Cognitive Processes. High correlations with intelligence tests suggest it may be a duplication of this construct. As environments change, people must learn new skills in order continue to meet the environmental demands. The ABI has a normative sample representative of all school-age children, including those with disabilities, and of a sample with mental retardation. . However, because several adaptive behavior scales contain maladaptive components, it is worth noting important challenges to reliable measurement. They have provided valuable information that has informed decision making about interventions to improve the social functioning of individuals with mental retardation. For the Social Skills and Vocational Success, Chadsey-Rusch (1992) described three measurement approaches to operationalize a definition of social skills, including (1) the perception of others in the workplace, especially employers, (2) the goals and perceptions of the target individual, and (3) performance of social behaviors in natural contexts. Greenspan and Driscoll (1997) proposed a dual nature of competence. They suggest that intelligence, as measured by IQ, is typically viewed as an independent variable that predicts outcomes, whereas personal competence is the combination of what individuals bring to various goals and challenges as well as their relative degree of success in meeting those goals and challenges (p. 130). The TICE, which is commercially available, consists of two subtests that assess the individual's ability to evaluate strategies in relation to the situational demands of two distinct social interaction contexts common in work settings: interaction with coworkers and interaction with supervisors. All of the measures above have demonstrated concordance with psychiatric diagnosis. The instrument's structure must guide interpretation. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales are a valid and reliable test to measure a person's adaptive level of functioning. Division 33 makes it clear that the presence of clinically significant maladaptive behavior does not meet the criterion of significant limitations in adaptive functioning (Jacobson & Mulick, 1996). They also found that it was not the selection of the instrument that determined the number of factors. Finally, as this chapter is being written, the World Health Organization (WHO) has completed development of ICIDH-2, the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (World Health Organization, 2000; see also Post et al., 1999), a functionally based nomenclature. However, research that indicates a causal relationship between the childrearing practices of minority families in North America and developmental delay is very limited. This scale is the Psychiatric Assessment Schedule for Adults with Developmental Disability or PASS-ADD (Moss et al., 1996, 1998, 2000; Prosser et al., 1998). Currently available instruments typically do not provide sufficient coverage of some aspects of adaptive functioning for adolescents and adults who are functioning in the IQ range of 60 to 75, the range in which diagnostic decisions about mental retardation are most difficult. Their repertoires often exclude certain types of socially adaptive strategies. For the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (Harrison & Oakland, 2000a), the norming groups for 5- to 21-year-olds included 1,670 (parent form) to 1,690 (teacher form) children; for 16- to 89-year-olds, the norming groups included 920 (rated by others) to 990 (self-report) adults without disabilities throughout the United States. Adaptive behavior has been fundamental to conceptions of mental retardation at least since the early 19th century (Doll, 1936a, 1967). This important finding has direct implications for definitions that require limitations to be observed in a specific number of areas. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales What it measures: How a child's daily living skills compare to those of other kids his age. They made two important points before summarizing their findings: (1) highly correlated factors may indicate that they do not represent independent dimensions and (2) different methods of factor analysis can support different factor structures. Nonetheless, culturally competent assessment practices require consideration of the developmental impacts of cultural practices or language differences among examiners, examinees, and informants that may affect the validity of the clinical information collected and interpreted. They also have utility in documenting delays or functional limitations consistent with marked impairment in motor development, activities of daily living, communication, social functioning, or personal functioning. For any given age, it is unlikely that developmental tasks will be oversampled. ICD-10 views the relationship between intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior as causal, with deficits in adaptive behavior resulting from deficits in intellectual functioning. Reviews of the ILS have been generally negative, and it may not be suitable for disability determination purposes. The residential and community version, ABS-RC:2, was developed to be appropriate for use with persons through 79 years of age. (1995) found that only 13 percent of respondents in the sample of clinical psychologists engaged in ability testing as part of their clinical practice, but 66 percent engaged in intellectual assessment. The committee has identified several measures that would be useful in disability determination for mental retardation. The distinction between maximum performance and typical performance assessments might be illustrated with some common adaptive behavior items. These other bits of data could include a review of developmental and social history, direct observation of the individual's behavior, verbal reports from interviews, and the use of the other structured and semistructured interviews. The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABSSparrow et al., 1984a) have their conceptual roots in the Vineland Social Maturity Scale (Doll, 1936b), although overlap between the original and the new scales is minimal (Kamphaus, 1987b). The adaptive behavior construct has both typical performance and maximum performance elements, a characteristic that complicates measurement operations. Research with individuals with mental retardation has consistently documented limitations in their performance of both of these components of strategy generation. In general, the cutoff scores for adaptive behavior should be one standard deviation below the mean in two adaptive behavior areas or one and one-half standard deviations below the mean in one adaptive behavior area. Overall, the construct of social cognition represents the cognitive aspects of social functioning. A major reason why proper assessment of the social domain of adaptive behavior can be a challenge for eligibility examiners is that the limitations in social functioning in individuals with mild mental retardation are often difficult to quantify with available assessment methods. At the same time, it has been noted that use of adaptive behavior measures in the process of identifying children with mild mental retardation, especially, may be forgone in many schools because the academic failures or behavioral problems that prompt teacher referral of students, in and of themselves, may be considered valid indicators of limitations, deficits, or delays in adaptive behavior (McCullough & Rutenberg, 1988). Thompson et al. Making friends Teaching how to clean oneself, brush hair and teeth, wear clean clothes and make one's presence neat and presentable. Another method is to ask a third-party respondent (e.g., a parent or teacher) either very general questions about communication skills, a more specific question about telephone use, or a direct question like Does Edouard find a number by looking it up in a telephone book? As a general rule, skills can be measured directly with greater accuracy, reliability, and validity than performance. Both structured and semistructured interviews, when performed by well-trained and experienced clinicians, appear to be the best available safeguard against threats to the reliability and the validity of adaptive behavior assessment. ABLE Adaptive Behavior Skills Checklist Adaptive behavior is a developmentally determined set of coping skills. There are many reasons that can lead to maladaptive behavior. Connect with AAIDD on Social Media For example, individuals with very high adaptive performance may be impatient with red tape, resistance to change and organizations that prioritize group harmony over performance. However, a recent surgeon general's report (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001) focuses on the miscommunication that may exist when the interviewer and the respondent speak different languages. Is the person familiar with and able to think of a variety of strategies that are potentially appropriate for resolving social problems? The most cited definition in the field is that of the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR). Adaptive behaviors include real-life skills such as grooming, getting dressed, avoiding danger, safe food handling, following school rules, managing money, cleaning, and making friends. For example, an individual with mild mental retardation may be familiar with the routines and may benefit from the supports that staff provide in the supervised apartment program in which he lives. Because Florida is a large and populous state with a culturally diverse population, it is likely that results can be generalized to the national population. Retaining all features that made the second edition the preferred instrument for evaluating adaptive behavior, the ABAS-3 is even easier to administer and score. Because adaptive behavior scales are designed with applicability for a wide age range but with primary emphasis on childhood and adolescence, some items may not be suitably worded or may not reflect a performance that is age-relevant. Principal Comprehensive Adaptive Behavior Measures and Their Characteristics. The observational behavioral follow-up assessment (0360T, 0361T) is designed by the physician or other qualied health care professional to identify and evaluate factors that may impede the expression of adaptive behavior. Does the person accurately interpret others' emotions and intentions on the basis of the available cues? This chapter contains material drawn from an unpublished paper commissioned by the committee from Sharon Borthwick-Duffy, Ph.D., University of California, Riverside. Adaptive behavior refers to the ways individuals meet their personal needs as well as deal with the natural and social demands in their environments (Nihira et al., 1993). (1) associate current level of functioning with amor activities or settings such as home or playground (2) current and future places where the child might participate are identified (3) identification of substrings in which the child currently participates or may in the future (4) requires an inventory of each subsetting Taken together, these findings suggest that the primary cadre of psychologists with experience and expertise in the use of adaptive behavior measures, those who are most likely to use them in assessment and classification of mental retardation, consists of school-based practitioners. Adaptive behavior has been an integral, although sometimes unstated, part of the long history of mental retardation and its definition. At first glance, current definitions seem to be quite similar; however, there are subtle differences in the conceptualization of adaptive behavior that may affect the outcomes of diagnostic decisions for individuals with mental retardation, particularly those in the mild range. One particular adaptive behavior scale was ranked 17th in use among 38 scales, but less than 15 percent of respondents reported using this scale frequently. Thus, most norming samples, item development, and scale selection have been targeted at groups ages 3 to 18 or 21. Aggressive could mean that she hits, bites, yells, or displays other forms of aggression. Individuals or third-party respondents are asked to indicate their usual feelings or behaviors, not their best or most positive feelings or behaviors. Overall, as a supplement to standardized adaptive behavior assessment scales, social-cognitive assessment has the potential to contribute to the improvement of SSI and DI eligibility determination practices by enriching the pool of relevant information that is available for resolving uncertainty in decisions regarding impairment in the social domain. What is adaptive Behaviour assessment? The available instruments include indirect assessments, such as rating scales that assess an individual's typical performance of social behaviors based on information from informants, including teachers, parents, and job coaches, as well as instruments that permit direct assessment of the processes that, according to theoretical models of successful social adaptation, underlie the ability to perform situationally appropriate behavior. Adaptive Behavior Skills Assessment Guide. ABS-RC:2 norms are not available for adults with typical functioning, and most norm-referenced scores provide comparisons only with adults with developmental disabilities. Some of the more common and relevant response sets are (a) social desirability, involving responses consistent with positive or desirable connotations of the items or behaviors, (b) acquiescence, involving the tendency to say yes, true, or, in cases in which knowledge is lacking or uncertain, sometimes, and (c) halo effects, involving reporting higher adaptive behavior among persons who are more liked by the respondent. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS): This test measures the social skills of people from birth to 19 years of age. Reliabilities are initially assessed at the item level and then at the scale and factor levels. It requires an individual to demonstrate adaptive skills, rather than using a third-party informant or self-report to gather information on typical behavior. It may, however, be useful for identifying some of the issues likely to arise in setting a specific numeric cutoff point. Novel frameworks for conceptualization of adaptive behavior have been proposed (American Association on Mental Retardation, 1992), and conventional frameworks have been endorsed for application in differential diagnosis and classification practices (Jacobson & Mulick, 1996). (Harrison & Boney, 2002). Adaptive behaviors include real-life skills such as grooming, getting dressed, avoiding danger, safe food handling, following school rules, managing money, cleaning, and making friends. Observations of the individual in real-life, everyday situations 2. Newer adaptive behavior scales evidence more robust psychometric properties than older scales. Children with special needs might be delayed in these areas. The Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS-2) is a behavior rating scale that gives a complete assessment of adaptive skills across the lifespan (Harrison & Oakland, 2000). Example: as part of a course, expecting each senior to complete a research paper that is graded for content and style, but is also assessed for advanced ability to locate and evaluate Web-based information (as part of a college-wide outcome to demonstrate information literacy). NOTE: AAMR-ABS = American Association on Mental Retardation Adaptive Behavior Scales-School version (Lambert et al., 1993a); Residential and Community version (Nihira et al., 1993); ABAS = Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (Harrison & Oakland, 2000a); SIB-R = Scales of Independent Behavior-Revised (Bruininks et al., 2000); VABS = Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow et al., 1984c). Edger Doll produced form board speeded performance tests, which were analogues to everyday vocational tasks. As the importance of adaptive behavior measures in classification of mental retardation has increased, this concern has been heightened as disproportionate numbers of minority children have been identified as having mental retardation, primarily because of low-income status and the overrepresentation of individuals with mental retardation among low-income people (Boyle et al., 1996). Another, more open-ended assessment technique is to present a social problem and then to ask the interviewee to relate everything that is going through the protagonist's mind as he or she tries to decide what to do about resolving the problem (e.g., Hickson et al., 1998; Jenkinson & Nelms, 1994). However, depending on the age range of adult participants without disabilities sampled during norming studies, the ceiling (i.e., the highest level of behavioral performance assessed) may differ across scales and may affect the characterization of the degree of delay manifested. A high level of training is necessary in order to capture and distinguish the level, quality, and pattern of adaptive behavior displayed by a given subject, as viewed by the eyes of the respondent (parent, teacher, or caregiver). The subscales are similar to general adaptive behavior scales, but there is a greater emphasis on skills required to function in community settings than on basic adaptive skills. In describing the different severity levels of mental retardation, the ICD-10 guide presents IQ levels not as strict cutoffs but as guides to categorizing individuals with mental retardation. Bias refers to a consistent distortion of scores that is attributed to demographic factors, principally nonmodifiable personal characteristics such as age, gender, race, and ethnic or cultural membership. Thus, considerable variation has been found in the content covered by different scales (Holman & Bruininks, 1985; Thompson et al., 1999). The Comprehensive Test of Adaptive Behavior (CTABAdams & Hartleben, 1984) has been described as fairly efficient and inexpensive, with excellent reliability, solid validity, and adequate norms (Reschly, 1990). Table 4-4 presents examples of questions that can guide examiners in eliciting information regarding the three social-cognitive processes reviewed here. Since other norms should be used for determining a diagnosis of mental retardation, according to the manual, this should not be a problem in the current SSA context. For example, the ABAS is organized into 9 or, depending on age, 10 adaptive skills areas, clearly reflecting the 1992 AAMR manual on classification (American Association on Mental Retardation, 1992), which also identified 10 adaptive skills areas. For example, they rarely employ the strategy of attempting to work out a mutually acceptable compromise solution in instances when one's interests conflict with another person's wishes (Hickson & Khemka, 1999; Hickson et al., 1998; Jenkinson & Nelms, 1994; Smith, 1986). Nine behavior domains measure personal independence and personal responsibility in daily living, including prevocational/vocational activity. A consequence of this, according to Thompson et al., is the inability to develop precise measures of adaptive behavior that would objectively differentiate individuals by disability. Physical/developmental and vocational/community dimensions were found less often. It includes two adult forms, including a self-report and a report by others, and norms that extend well into adulthood. In conjunction with the ICIDH-2, WHO has developed the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule II (WHODAS II), which, in its most extensive form, contains 36 items tapping domains of: (1) understanding and communicating, (2) getting around, (3) self-care, (4) getting along with others, (5) household and work activities, and (6) participation in society. Adaptive Behavior. As Switzky et al. The frequency of performance can be classified along a dimension from never to usually or always. The number of choice points varies by specific instrument or by the variation in the clinical interpretation of the assessor when a formal assessment instrument is not used. The Adaptive Behavior Inventory (ABIBrown & Leigh, 1986) was designed to reflect the ability of school-age youngsters to meet age-appropriate socio-cultural expectations for personal responsibility (Smith, 1989). This leads to some unique problems with these measures. Comprehensive adaptive behavior measures are those that assess adaptive behavior through multiple items in multiple domains of functioning. Because adaptive behavior scales are targeted either specifically at children and adolescents or at groups ranging from children to young adults, there is a strong developmental component to their structures (Widaman et al., 1987). Areas assessed, and information that may be revealed, include areas of communication, daily living skills, community functioning, socialization, self-reliance skills, and motor skills. Recent studies with these individuals have documented limitations in their reasoning about the consequences of strategies that make it difficult for them to select a social strategy that is appropriate for a given social situation. The 1983 manual characterized the tasks or activities encompassed by adaptive behavior (and, plausibly social competence) as: During the 1960s, a wider variety of adaptive behavior measures was developed and disseminated (e.g., Allen et al., 1970; Balthazar & English, 1969; Leland et al., 1967). It did not cover adults and had a limited range of items tapping community living skills (Scheerenberger, 1983). Adaptive behaviors include real-life skills such as grooming, getting dressed, avoiding danger, safe food handling, following school rules, managing money, cleaning, and making friends. For example, assessments are used during classroom instruction to measure students' learning related to the academic content, and different assessments are used to measure students' overall cognitive, physical, or social . (1991) found that two adaptive behavior scales ranked 20th and 21st among 29 specific psychological assessment measures used by psychologists serving adolescents, and they were used frequently by fewer than 10 percent of practitioners. Social cognition encompasses such constructs as social problem solving (Spivack & Shure, 1974), decision making (Hickson & Khemka, 1999), and social and emotional learning (Elias et al., 1997). Social These skills help us to get along well with others. The assessment of adaptive behavior is complex. Copyright 1987 by PRO-ED, Inc. Reprinted with permission. Although it is linked to AAMR by name, the ABS does not provide subscale scores in the 10 adaptive skill areas listed in the 1992 AAMR definition of mental retardation. 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